Designing a programming langauge

1. How are the programming languages designed?

2. How does computer understand the language codes?

3. Which part of computer do these works?

4. How does hardware interact with software?

5. Where are the software stored in the computer and what heppens when computer starts?

6. How does bootloader do it's work by its own?

7. How are the programming languages understood by devices?

8. There are many human languages in the world and we need those language to learn before writing, understanding and speaking. In the same way how are the programming languages are taught to the computer so that it can respond correctly?

9. Machine learning means programming codes are converted into electric fluctuations?

10. Consider an example

Suppose we are using c++ to design a programm for a task and we will use #include <iostream.h>

cin

cout

and many more syntax. Then how does computer understand that cin is for executable input for computer and cout is for to give output? What happens inside the computer for this scenario?

How are the programming languages designed?

Programming languages are designed through a structured process that involves several key steps:

1. Requirements Analysis:

 The first step is to determine the goals and objectives of the language. What problems will it solve? What features are essential? This phase often involves discussions with potential users and experts in the field.

2. Language Specification: Based on the requirements, a formal specification of the language is created. This includes defining syntax (the rules for writing code) and semantics (the meaning of code). This specification serves as the blueprint for the language.

3. Syntax Design: 

Designers create the language's syntax, which dictates how programs are written. This involves decisions about keywords, operators, and the overall structure of code.

4. Semantics Design:

The semantics define how the code behaves when executed. Designers specify how variables, data types, and operations work within the language.

5. Implementation:

Once the language is designed, it needs to be implemented. This typically involves writing a compiler or interpreter, which translates the human-readable code into machine-readable instructions.

6. Testing and Debugging:

The language is thoroughly tested to ensure it behaves as expected and is free of bugs. This includes both the compiler/interpreter and the standard library.

7. Documentation: 

Comprehensive documentation is created to help developers understand how to use the language. This includes tutorials, reference manuals, and examples.

8. Community Feedback:

After the language is released, the community of developers provides feedback, and updates or revisions may be made to improve the language based on real-world usage.

9. Standardization: 

In some cases, programming languages are standardized by organizations like ISO or ANSI to ensure consistency and portability across different platforms.

10. Evolution: 

Programming languages continue to evolve over time, with new features and improvements added in response to changing needs and technology trends.

The design of a programming language is a complex and iterative process that combines computer science theory, user feedback, and practical implementation considerations. It requires careful planning and consideration to create a language that is both powerful and user-friendly.

How does computer understand the language codes?

Computers understand programming languages through a two-step process involving compilation or interpretation:

1. Compilation:

In compiled languages like C, C++, or Rust, the source code is written by the programmer and saved in a file with a specific file extension (e.g., .c for C). The source code is then processed by a compiler. Here's how it works:

   - Lexical Analysis (Scanning):

The compiler breaks the source code into individual tokens, which are the smallest units of meaning, such as keywords, identifiers, and symbols.

   - Syntax Analysis (Parsing):

The compiler analyzes the structure of the code to ensure it adheres to the language's grammar rules. It builds a parse tree or abstract syntax tree (AST) that represents the code's structure.

   - Semantic Analysis:

The compiler checks for semantic errors, like type mismatches or undefined variables/functions, and ensures that the code makes sense.

   - Code Optimization (optional): 

Some compilers perform optimizations to improve the efficiency of the generated machine code.

   - Code Generation: 

Finally, the compiler translates the high-level source code into low-level machine code or an intermediate representation, creating an executable binary or object file that the computer's processor can understand and execute.

2. Interpretation: 

In interpreted languages like Python, JavaScript, or Ruby, the source code is executed directly by an interpreter. Here's how it works:

   - Lexical Analysis (Scanning): 

Similar to compilation, the interpreter breaks the source code into tokens.

   - Syntax Analysis (Parsing): 

It analyzes the code's structure and may build an abstract syntax tree (AST) or use another representation.

   - Execution: 

Instead of generating machine code, the interpreter directly executes the code line by line. It translates each high-level instruction into low-level machine instructions on the fly.

In both cases, the computer's Central Processing Unit (CPU) reads and executes the machine code instructions. These instructions are binary representations of the operations specified in the source code. The CPU interprets these instructions to perform tasks such as arithmetic operations, memory manipulation, and control flow.

The key difference between compiled and interpreted languages is when this translation from source code to machine code occurs. Compiled languages perform this translation ahead of time, producing standalone executables, while interpreted languages do it at runtime. Each approach has its advantages and trade-offs in terms of performance, portability, and ease of development.

Which part of computer do these works?

The tasks involved in processing programming languages (such as compilation or interpretation) are carried out by various components and software modules within a computer system:

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU): 

The CPU is the core component responsible for executing machine code instructions. It interprets and performs arithmetic, logical, and control operations as specified by the machine code generated during compilation or interpretation.

2. Compiler: 

In compiled languages, the compiler is a software program responsible for translating high-level source code into machine code or an intermediate representation. It performs lexical analysis, syntax analysis, semantic analysis, code optimization, and code generation.

3. Interpreter: 

In interpreted languages, the interpreter is a software program that directly executes the source code. It performs lexical analysis, syntax analysis, and then interprets and executes each line or statement of code in sequence.

4. Memory (RAM): 

Both compiled and interpreted programs typically use the computer's memory (RAM) to store and manipulate data during program execution. This includes variables, data structures, and the program's runtime stack and heap.

5. Operating System: 

The operating system plays a role in managing the execution of programs. It loads and schedules processes, manages memory allocation, and provides system services like file I/O and network communication.

6. Storage Devices: 

The compiled machine code or interpreted source code is stored on storage devices like hard drives or solid-state drives (SSDs). These devices hold the executable files and source code files until they are loaded into memory for execution.

7. Development Tools: 

Programmers use integrated development environments (IDEs) or text editors to write and edit source code. These tools often include features like code highlighting, debugging, and code completion to aid in the development process.

8. Runtime Libraries:

Many programming languages come with standard libraries that provide pre-written code for common tasks. These libraries are linked or loaded at runtime to provide additional functionality to programs.

In summary, the CPU is at the heart of executing instructions, while the compiler or interpreter, memory, and other system components work together to process and execute code. The operating system manages these processes and provides essential services, and storage devices store the code and data needed for program execution. Development tools and runtime libraries assist developers in creating and running software applications.

How does hardware interact with software?

Hardware and software interact at multiple levels to enable a computer system to perform tasks and execute programs. This interaction occurs through a series of well-defined interfaces and processes:

1. Processor Execution: 

At the lowest level, the central processing unit (CPU) executes machine code instructions. These instructions are encoded in binary format and represent operations that the CPU can perform. Software, in the form of compiled or interpreted programs, generates this machine code. The CPU fetches, decodes, and executes these instructions.

2. Input and Output (I/O): 

Hardware peripherals like keyboards, mice, displays, storage devices, and network adapters communicate with software through device drivers. Device drivers are software components that act as intermediaries between the hardware and the operating system. They provide a standard interface that software can use to send and receive data from these devices.

3. Memory Management: 

Software interacts with the computer's memory hierarchy, including RAM and secondary storage (e.g., hard drives or SSDs). The operating system's memory manager allocates and deallocates memory for programs and data. Programs load data and instructions into memory for execution, and the CPU accesses this memory during program execution.

4. System Calls:

Software communicates with the operating system through system calls. These are predefined functions or interfaces provided by the operating system that allow programs to request services like file operations, process management, and network communication. When a program makes a system call, the operating system handles the requested action and returns the result to the program.

5. Interrupts: 

Hardware devices can generate interrupts to signal the CPU that they require attention. When an interrupt occurs, the CPU temporarily suspends its current task, saves its state, and jumps to an interrupt handler routine provided by the operating system or specific device drivers. This allows hardware to asynchronously interact with software.

6. Graphics Processing: 

Graphics hardware (e.g., GPUs) interacts with software to render graphics and accelerate certain computations. Graphics drivers translate high-level graphics commands from software into low-level GPU instructions.

7. Network Communication:

Network hardware, such as network interface cards (NICs), facilitates communication between software applications and remote systems. Software communicates over networks using protocols like TCP/IP, and the operating system manages the transmission and reception of data packets.

8. Firmware: 

Firmware is a type of software that resides on hardware devices themselves, providing low-level control and functionality. For example, the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) on a computer's motherboard is firmware that initializes hardware during boot-up.

In summary, hardware and software interact through various interfaces, abstractions, and layers. The operating system plays a central role in mediating these interactions, managing hardware resources, and providing a uniform environment for software applications to run. This interaction allows software to control and utilize hardware to perform a wide range of tasks, from simple user interactions to complex computations and data storage.

Where are the software stored in the computer and what heppens when computer starts?

Software on a computer is stored in several different locations, each serving a specific purpose. Here are the primary storage locations for software:

1. Hard Drive or SSD (Secondary Storage): 

Most software, including the operating system (OS) and installed applications, is stored on the computer's hard drive or solid-state drive (SSD). These storage devices are non-volatile, meaning they retain data even when the computer is powered off. The OS and software applications are typically installed in directories or folders on these drives.

2. RAM (Random Access Memory): 

While software is stored on secondary storage, it must be loaded into RAM for execution. RAM is volatile memory, meaning it loses its data when the computer is powered off or restarted. When you start a program or the operating system, a copy of the necessary software components is loaded from the hard drive into RAM.

3. Firmware:

Firmware is a type of software that is permanently stored on hardware devices. For example, the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) on a computer's motherboard is firmware that initializes hardware components during the boot-up process.

When you turn on or restart a computer, a series of events occur during the boot process:

1. Power-On Self-Test (POST): 

When the computer is powered on, the BIOS or UEFI firmware initiates a built-in self-test to check the hardware components for proper functioning. If any issues are detected, error messages may be displayed.

2. Boot Loader:

After the POST, the BIOS or UEFI firmware locates and loads a boot loader from a predefined location on the storage device. The boot loader is a small piece of software that knows how to load the operating system. On most modern computers, the boot loader is part of the boot partition, such as GRUB for Linux or the Windows Boot Manager for Windows.

3. Operating System Kernel:

Once the boot loader has done its job, it hands control over to the operating system's kernel. The kernel is the core part of the OS responsible for managing hardware resources, processes, and system services.

4. User Login or Desktop Environment:

After the kernel initializes, the OS loads user-specific configurations and services. This might include presenting a login screen or directly launching a desktop environment.

5. Running Software:

As the desktop environment loads or when a user logs in, various software applications and background processes are started. These applications and processes are loaded from the storage device into RAM for execution.

6. User Interaction:

With the operating system and software fully loaded into RAM, users can interact with their computer, launch applications, open files, and perform tasks.

In summary, software is initially stored on secondary storage devices like hard drives or SSDs and is loaded into RAM when needed for execution. The boot process involves a sequence of steps, starting with firmware initialization, loading a boot loader, and ultimately running the operating system and user applications, making the computer ready for user interaction.

How does bootloader do it's work by its own?

A bootloader is a small but crucial piece of software responsible for booting or starting the operating system on a computer. It performs its work independently during the boot process by following these key steps:

1. BIOS/UEFI Initialization: 

When the computer is powered on or restarted, the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) or UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface) firmware initializes and performs a Power-On Self-Test (POST) to check hardware components.

2. Boot Device Selection:

The BIOS or UEFI firmware locates the boot device specified in its configuration. This device is usually the computer's hard drive or SSD, where the bootloader is stored. The firmware uses information from the Master Boot Record (MBR) or GUID Partition Table (GPT) to identify the bootable partition.

3. Bootloader Loading:

The BIOS or UEFI firmware loads the initial bootloader code from a predefined location on the boot device into memory (RAM). This location is typically in the first sector of the bootable partition (for MBR) or in an EFI System Partition (ESP) for GPT.

4. Bootloader Execution: 

Once loaded into memory, the bootloader code starts executing. The bootloader's primary role is to find and load the main operating system kernel.

5. Operating System Kernel Loading:

The bootloader's code contains logic to locate the operating system's kernel on the storage device. It knows the file path or location of the kernel and initiates its loading into memory. This involves reading the kernel file from the storage device and copying it into a specific memory location.

6. Handoff to the Kernel:

After loading the kernel, the bootloader sets up the necessary environment for the kernel to execute. This includes configuring memory, initializing hardware, and setting up a kernel command line with relevant parameters.

7. Kernel Execution:

The bootloader transfers control to the operating system's kernel. From this point onward, the kernel takes over the boot process. The kernel initializes device drivers, mounts the root filesystem, and continues with the startup process.

It's important to note that there are different bootloaders used on various platforms and for different operating systems. Common bootloaders include GRUB (used in many Linux distributions), the Windows Boot Manager (used by Windows), and U-Boot (used in embedded systems).

The bootloader's primary job is to facilitate the transition from the firmware's control to the operating system's control, ensuring a smooth and reliable boot process. It's a critical component for system initialization and is responsible for loading and launching the main operating system, which is why it needs to be small, efficient, and reliable.

How are the programming languages understood by devices?

Programming languages are understood by devices through a process of translation and execution. Here's a simplified overview of how this works:

1. High-Level Code:

Programmers write code in high-level programming languages like Python, Java, C++, etc. These languages use human-readable syntax, making it easier for developers to express their intentions in a way that is more natural and abstract.

2. Compilation or Interpretation: 

Programming languages are either compiled or interpreted:

   - Compilation:

In compiled languages like C or C++, the source code is processed by a compiler. The compiler translates the high-level code into machine code, which consists of low-level binary instructions that can be executed directly by the computer's CPU. The resulting machine code is typically stored in an executable file.

   - Interpretation:

In interpreted languages like Python or JavaScript, the source code is executed directly by an interpreter. The interpreter reads the high-level code line by line and translates it into machine code or intermediate code on the fly, which is executed by the CPU.

3. Execution:

Regardless of whether the language is compiled or interpreted, the CPU of the device is responsible for executing the machine code instructions. These instructions direct the CPU to perform specific operations, such as arithmetic calculations, data manipulation, and control flow (e.g., branching and looping).

4. Operating System:

The operating system plays a role in managing the execution of programs. It allocates resources like CPU time and memory to running programs, handles I/O operations (e.g., reading/writing files), and provides essential services to programs.

5. Hardware Interaction:

Devices interact with hardware through device drivers and system calls. Device drivers are software components that serve as intermediaries between the software and hardware devices. System calls are predefined functions provided by the operating system that allow programs to request services from the hardware, such as reading from a keyboard or writing to a display.

6. External Devices:

Devices like displays, keyboards, and storage devices have their own hardware controllers that enable communication with the CPU and memory. Software communicates with these devices through drivers and APIs (Application Programming Interfaces).

7. User Interaction:

For user-facing applications, the device may have a user interface (UI) that displays information and receives user input. Software interacts with the UI components to provide a user-friendly experience.

In summary, programming languages serve as an intermediary between human-readable code and the machine code that devices understand. Compilation or interpretation processes translate high-level code into machine code or intermediate code, which is then executed by the CPU. The operating system manages program execution, resource allocation, and interaction with hardware, while device drivers facilitate communication with external devices. This intricate coordination allows devices to understand and execute the instructions provided by software written in programming languages.

There are many human languages in the world and we need those language to learn before writing, understanding and speaking. In the same way how are the programming languages are taught to the computer so that it can respond correctly?

Teaching programming languages to computers involves a combination of human intervention and automated processes. Here's a general overview of how programming languages are taught to computers:

1. Human Intervention (Programming): Programmers, who are humans with expertise in coding, write programs in a specific programming language. These programs serve as instructions for the computer. Programmers use the syntax and semantics of the programming language to convey logic and functionality.

2. Compiler or Interpreter: 

For compiled languages, a compiler translates the human-readable code written by programmers into machine code or an intermediate form that the computer's CPU can understand. In interpreted languages, an interpreter reads and executes the code directly, translating it into machine code on the fly.

3. Machine Code Execution:

The resulting machine code is executed by the computer's CPU. Each machine code instruction corresponds to a specific operation, such as arithmetic calculations, memory access, or control flow.

4. Feedback Loop:

The programmer receives feedback from the computer in the form of program output, error messages, or other diagnostic information. This feedback helps the programmer understand how well the program aligns with their intentions and how it interacts with the computer's environment.

5. Debugging and Iteration:

If the program doesn't produce the desired results or contains errors, the programmer engages in debugging. Debugging involves identifying and fixing errors in the code. The programmer iteratively modifies the code, recompiles or reinterprets it, and observes the computer's response until the desired functionality is achieved.

6. Documentation and Learning Resources: Programmers often refer to documentation and learning resources specific to the programming language. These resources provide information on syntax, libraries, and best practices. Learning resources can include tutorials, books, online courses, and community forums.

7. Training and Education:

Humans learn programming languages through formal education, self-study, and hands-on experience. Educational institutions offer courses in computer science and programming languages, providing structured learning environments. Programmers also learn informally by working on projects, participating in coding communities, and collaborating with peers.

8. AI-Assisted Learning:

In recent years, there has been an emergence of AI-assisted tools and platforms that help programmers write code more efficiently. These tools can offer suggestions, identify potential errors, and provide auto-completions based on patterns observed in large code repositories.

9. Community and Collaboration:

Programmers often learn from each other through collaborative coding and knowledge-sharing within the programming community. Open-source projects, coding forums, and collaborative platforms facilitate sharing experiences and insights.

In summary, teaching programming languages to computers involves a collaborative process between humans and machines. Programmers write code in a programming language, which is then translated and executed by the computer. Feedback loops, debugging, documentation, education, and community collaboration contribute to the learning process for both programmers and computers.

Machine learning means programming codes are converted into electric fluctuations?

No, machine learning does not involve directly converting programming codes into electric fluctuations. Machine learning is a subfield of artificial intelligence (AI) that focuses on developing algorithms and models that enable computers to learn from data and make decisions or predictions without being explicitly programmed for a specific task.

In machine learning:

1. Training Data: 

Algorithms are trained using data. This data consists of examples, often in the form of input-output pairs, that the algorithm uses to learn patterns and relationships.

2. Feature Extraction:

Relevant features from the input data are identified. These features could be various attributes or characteristics that the algorithm uses to make predictions.

3. Model Training:

The machine learning model is trained using the training data and the identified features. During training, the model adjusts its internal parameters to minimize the difference between its predictions and the actual outcomes in the training data.

4. Model Inference:

Once trained, the model can make predictions or decisions on new, unseen data. This process involves applying the learned patterns to new input data and generating an output or prediction.

The execution of a trained machine learning model involves mathematical computations, not direct conversion of code into electric fluctuations. The model processes input data through a series of mathematical operations, often represented by matrices and vectors, which are executed by the computer's central processing unit (CPU) or, in some cases, by specialized hardware like graphics processing units (GPUs) or tensor processing units (TPUs).

While machine learning models are implemented using programming languages, the execution involves numerical computations rather than the direct transformation of code into electric fluctuations. The electric fluctuations in a computer represent the flow of electrical signals through circuits and transistors, and these are used to perform the mathematical operations required by the machine learning algorithms.

In summary, machine learning involves training models based on data, and the execution of these models involves mathematical computations rather than a direct conversion of code into electric fluctuations. The electrical signals in a computer are used to perform the computations necessary for machine learning tasks.

Consider an example

Suppose we are using c++  to design a programm for a task and we will use #include <iostream.h>

cin,

cout,

and many more syntax. 

Then how does computer understand that cin is for executable input for computer and cout is for to give output? What happens inside the computer in this scenario?

When you use C++ to design a program that includes `#include <iostream>` and utilizes `cin` and `cout`, the functionality is facilitated through the C++ standard library. Here's a simplified overview of what happens inside the computer:

1. Header Inclusion:

When you include `<iostream>` in your C++ program using `#include <iostream>`, you are essentially telling the compiler to include the declarations and definitions of functionalities provided by the C++ Standard Input/Output Library.

2. Compilation:

The C++ source code, which includes the `<iostream>` header and uses `cin` and `cout`, is then processed by the compiler. The compiler translates your human-readable C++ code into machine code or an intermediate form that the computer can execute.

3. Translation to Machine Code:

The C++ Standard Input/Output Library (`iostream`) is part of the standard C++ library, and its functionalities are implemented in machine code. During compilation, your program is linked to the appropriate machine code implementations for `cin` and `cout` from the C++ library.

4. Execution:

When you run the compiled program, the operating system loads it into memory. The program, including the parts related to input and output, is executed by the computer's central processing unit (CPU).

5. Library Function Calls:

When your program encounters a `cin` statement, it is actually calling a function provided by the `iostream` library. Similarly, when your program uses `cout`, it is calling a function from the library. These functions are pre-defined and written in machine code, and they interact with the operating system to manage input and output.

6. System Calls: 

The `cin` and `cout` functions, in turn, make system calls to the operating system. System calls are requests for the operating system to perform specific tasks, such as reading from the standard input (keyboard) or writing to the standard output (screen).

7. Input/Output Buffers:

The `iostream` library and the operating system often use input and output buffers to efficiently handle data. For example, when you use `cin >> variable;`, the input is read into a buffer, and then the buffer's contents are processed to extract the relevant data for your program.

8. Communication with Hardware:

The operating system manages the communication between your program and the hardware. For example, when using `cout`, the operating system ensures that the data is properly formatted and sent to the standard output, which could be your computer's screen.

In summary, when you use `cin` and `cout` in a C++ program, you are leveraging the functionalities provided by the C++ Standard Input/Output Library. During compilation, the appropriate machine code for these functionalities is linked to your program. At runtime, your program makes calls to these library functions, which, in turn, interact with the operating system and hardware to manage input and output operations.